The Use and Non-Use of Articles
Definition of articles
English has two types of articles: definite (the) and indefinite (a, an.) The use of these articles depends mainly on whether you are referring to any member of a group, or to a specific member of a group:
1. Indefinite Articles: a and an
A and an signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. These indefinite articles are used with singular nouns when the noun is general; the corresponding indefinite quantity word some is used for plural general nouns. The rule is:
• a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy
• an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant
• a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used)
• some + plural noun: some girls
If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:
• a broken egg
• an unusual problem
• a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)
Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a profession, nation, or religion.
• I am a teacher.
• Brian is an Irishman.
• Seiko is a practicing Buddhist.
2. Definite Article: the
The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is particular or specific. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. Compare the indefinite and definite articles in the following examples:
Indefinite (a or an) Definite (the)
Singular a dog (any dog)
an apple (any apple) the dog (that specific dog)
the apple (that specific apple)
Plural some dogs (any dogs)
some apples (any apples) the dogs (those specific dogs)
the apples (those specific apples)
The is not used with noncountable nouns referring to something in a general sense:
[no article] Coffee is a popular drink.
[no article] Japanese was his native language.
[no article] Intelligence is difficult to quantify.
The is used with noncountable nouns that are made more specific by a limiting modifying phrase or clause:
The coffee in my cup is too hot to drink.
The Japanese he speaks is often heard in the countryside.
The intelligence of animals is variable but undeniable.
The is also used when a noun refers to something unique:
the White House
the theory of relativity
the 1999 federal budget
Note: Geographical uses of the
Do not use the before:
• Names of countries (India, Mexico, France except the Netherlands and the US ,the UK)
• names of cities, towns, or states ( Hyderabad, Maharashtra, London)
• Names of streets (M.G Road, Main St.)
• Names of mountains (Mount Everest, Mount Fuji) except with ranges of mountains like the Himalayas or the Rockies
• Names of continents (Asia, Europe)
• Names of islands (Easter Island, Sri Lanka, Key West) except with island chains like the Maldives, the Seychelles, or the Canary Islands
Do use the before:
• names of rivers, oceans and seas (the Nile, the Ganges, the Pacific)
• points on the globe (the Equator, the North Pole)
• geographical areas (the Middle East, the West)
• deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas (the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula)
Further Uses of Articles
In addition, use of a, an and the also depends on whether the noun following the article possesses one of these paired qualities:
• Countable vs. non countable
• First vs. subsequent mention
• General vs. specific
1. Countable vs. Noncountable
A and an are used if the noun can be counted.
I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just one. Therefore, use a.)
I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted)
I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)
The must be used when the noun cannot be counted.
I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into? The question doesn't make any sense because water is noncountable. Therefore, use the.)
I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be counted)
I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot be counted)
2. First vs. Subsequent Mention
A or an is used to introduce a noun when it is mentioned for the first time in a piece of writing. The is used afterward each time you mention that same noun.
An awards ceremony at the Kremlin would not normally have attracted so much attention. But when it was leaked that Soviet President Konstantin Chernenko would be presenting medals to three cosmonauts, interest in the ceremony intensified. Time, Sept. 17, 1984.
Note: There is and there are can be used to introduce an indefinite noun at the beginning of a paragraph or essay.
There is a robin in the tree outside my window. When my cat jumps up on the desk, the robin flies away.
3. General vs. Specific
A, an, and the can all be used to indicate that a noun refers to the whole class to which individual countable nouns belong. This use of articles is called generic, from the Latin word meaning "class."
A tiger is a dangerous animal. (Any individual tiger)
The tiger is a dangerous animal. (All tigers: tiger as a generic category)
The difference between the indefinite a and an and the generic a and an is that the former means any one member of a class while the latter means all of the members of a class.
The omission of articles also expresses a generic (or general) meaning:
No article with a plural noun: Tigers are dangerous animals. (all tigers)
No article with a noncountable noun: Anger is a destructive emotion. (any kind of anger)
Omission of Articles
While some nouns combine with one article or the other based on whether they are countable or noncountable, others simply never take either article. Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:
1. Names of languages and nationalities
a. English
b. Spanish
c. Russian
d. Chinese
2. Names of sports
a. cricket
b. volleyball
c. hockey
d. baseball
3. Names of academic subjects
a. mathematics
b.biology
c.history
d.computer science
Common Errors - Verb Forms
Many verbs are used in continuous tenses. Here are some examples:
Present continuous - I'm working at the moment.
Past continuous - Jack was cooking dinner when I arrived.
Future continuous - I will be playing tennis this time tomorrow.
Present perfect continuous - She's been working her for three years.
Generally, continuous (or progressive) tenses are used to describe what is happening at a particular moment in time. The focus when using continuous tenses is always on an action in progress. However, there are some important exceptions to using continuous tenses. Most importantly, there are a number of common non-continuous verbs that are never or rarely used with continuous forms. These verbs fall into a few categories:
Mental and Emotional States
believe
dislike
doubt
imagine
know
like
love
hate
prefer
realize
recognize
remember
suppose
understand
want
wish
Examples
She dislikes that boy.
NOT She is disliking that boy.
Jack prefers going out for dinner tonight.
NOT Jack is preferring going out for dinner tonight.
I recognize you!
NOT I'm recognizing you!
Sense
appear
hear
see
seem
smell
sound
taste
Examples
I saw him when the train arrived.
NOT -I was seeing him when the train arrived.
It tastes strange. NOT - It is tasting strange.
Did you hear that?
NOT- Were you hearing that?
Communication
agree
astonish
deny
disagree
impress
mean
please
promise
satisfy
surprise
Examples
You astonish me!
NOT - You are astonishing me!
I'm afraid I disagree with you.
NOT -I'm afraid I am disagreeing with you.
I meant to tell him yesterday afternoon.
NOT - I was meaning to tell him yesterday afternoon.
Other States
be
belong
concern
consist
contain
cost
depend
deserve
fit
include
involve
lack
matter
need
owe
own
possess
Examples
It depends on how much it costs.
NOT - It is depending on how much it is costing.
She said it involved a lot of work.
NOT - She said it was involving a lot of work.
It doesn't matter.
NOT -It isn't mattering.
There are also a number of verbs that don't take the continuous forms in one meaning but DO take the continuous forms in other meanings. Here are some of the most important:
Non-Continuous Forms
feel = 'have an opinion' - He feels he should get a second chance.
see = 'understand' - I see what you mean.
think = 'have an opinion' - I think we should leave immediately.
appear = 'look like' - That appears to be stale.
look = 'seem' - It looks impossible!
taste = 'have a taste' - That tastes yummy!
Continuous Forms
feel = 'feel physically' - I'm feeling awful this afternoon.
see = 'visit' - She's seeing a doctor this morning.
think = 'use the brain' - He's thinking hard about the problem.
appear = 'be on stage / perform' – The artist is performing at Ravindra Bharati auditorium. tonight.
look = 'stare at' – They are looking at that strange man.
taste = 'use the mouth' – I am tasting the curry!
Dynamoo's Email Etiquette
Although most business and organisations? have adopted email relatively recently, for many people it is now the standard way of communicating within organisations, and also with customers, external contacts and business partners.
In business, the formality of email messages tends to vary, between the semi-formal approach that was previously the domain of the inter-office memo, down to chatty exchanges that you might have with someone over the telephone or while standing next to the coffee machine.
However, email messages are surprisingly permanent. Have a really good look through the contents of your mailbox and you might be surprised to see just how old some of those messages are. Would you have kept a paper inter-office memo for that length of time? Probably not. And the worrying thing is that most people give very little thought to the contents of an email message, even though it might linger around an organisation for several years.
Most corporate mail systems are backed up onto tape regularly, and those tape archives can stretch back for several years and allow access to mail that you had previously thought was gone forever. There have been several high-profile cases where archived emails have been recovered and used in legal cases.
However, it can be normal day-to-day email messages that can cause the most problems, with their offhand remarks and unguarded comments, thoughtless turns of phrase and careless wording. Care must be taken both when sending an email message, and, perhaps more importantly, when reading it. Try not to be too harsh if there's a chance that you might have misinterpreted the sender's meaning.
One problem with less formal email is missed signals - the written message doesn't come with facial expressions or gestures that you would get in a face-to-face meeting, and there's no tone of voice to interpret as you could over the telephone. A great deal of human communication comes from these non-verbal signals and traditionally they help to make the message more clear..
..for example, irony and humour? can be difficult to express in a mail message - many people get round this by using smileys such as :) to indicate humor - but not everyone knows what these mean, so they are not foolproof.
The following tips should help you avoid some of the pitfalls.
Good Email Etiquette
• Do check to see what your organisation's email policy is. Many organisations have rules about the types of message that can be sent and also if your email is monitored or screened.
• Do try to think about the message content before you send it out.
• Do make sure that the content is relevant to the recipients. Nobody likes to receive junk email.
• Do be polite. Terseness can be misinterpreted.
• Do trim any quoted message down as much as possible.
• Do try to use humour and irony sparingly. You can use smileys such as :) or :( to indicate facial expressions, but make sure that the recipient understands what they mean.
• Do ensure that you have a relevant "Subject" line.
• Do try to quote from the original message where relevant. You can break the quoted message down into paragraphs and comment on them individually to make it clearer.
• Do be patient, especially with inexperienced email users. Give people the benefit of the doubt - just because you are familiar with email etiquette, it doesn't mean that they are.
• Do include a brief signature on your email messages to help the recipient understand who it is from, especially if you are dealing with someone you do not know very well.
• Do be careful when replying to mailing list messages, or to messages sent to many recipients. Are you sure you want to reply to the whole list?
• Do remember to delete anything that isn't needed or is trivial.
• Do remember to tell people the format of any attachments you send if they're anything other than basic Microsoft Office file types.
• Do tell your correspondent if you forward a message to somebody else to deal with, so they know who to expect a reply from.
• Do use emphasis where its useful to do so. If your email system doesn't allow bold or italics then a common convention is to use a *star* either side of the word you want to stress.
• Do understand that languages such as English differ in spelling between different countries. "Organisation" and "humour" are the correct spelling in British English, but in American English it would be "organization" and "humor". Non-native speakers of English may use a variety of national spellings.
Bad Email Etiquette
• Don't reply to an email message when angry, as you may regret it later. Once the message has been sent, you will not be able to recover it.
• Don't keep mail on your server longer than necessary, especially large attachments.
• Don't copy out an entire, long message just to add a line or two of text such as "I agree".
• Don't type in CAPITALS as this is considered to be SHOUTING. This is one of the rudest things you can do.
• Don't over-use punctuation such as exclamation marks ("!") as these are meant to be for emphasis. In particular avoid more than one exclamation mark ("!!"), especially if your email is quite formal. Also, over-use of the full-stop (e.g. "....") can make a message difficult to read.
• Don't send irrelevant messages, especially to mailing lists or newsgroups.
• Don't send large attachments without checking with the recipient first.
• Don't send excessive multiple postings to people who have no interest. This is known as "spamming" and is considered to be ignorant, and may lead to serious trouble with your Internet Service Provider (ISP) or IT department.
• Don't send chain letters or "make money fast" messages. There are several hoaxes about to do with viruses - never pass these on without checking with your IT department first.
• Don't criticize people's spelling, it is considered petty. Many people have no way of running a spell check on their messages and will make typos. Not all nationalities spell words in the same way.
• Don't conduct arguments in public, for example on a mailing list.
• Don't "flame" people by sending them abusive email messages.
• Don't make personal remarks about third parties. Email messages can come back to haunt you.
• Don't send unsuitable email or attachments, especially anything of an obscene nature as they may well be found by a third party later.
• Don't use an over-elaborate signature on your email message. Never, ever, use scanned images in a signature as these tend to be very large.
• Don't mark things as urgent if they aren't, because then when you really do have an urgent message it may not be treated in the way it deserves.
• Don't post your email address on web sites and other parts of the Internet unless you want to be deluged with spam.
Modal Verbs and their substitutes
Modal verbs are for example may, can, must, should, need. They express ability, permission, and wish etc. to do something. (I may, can, must swim.) Many modal verbs cannot be used in all of the English tenses. That's why we need to know the substitutes to these modal verbs.
Modal Verb Substitute Example
must to have to I must swim. = I have to swim.
must not not to be allowed to I must not swim. = I am not allowed to swim.
can to be able to I can swim. = I am able to swim.
may to be allowed to I may swim. = I am allowed to swim.
need to have to I need to swim. = I have to swim.
need not not to have to I need not swim. = I don't have to swim.
shall / should/ ought to to be supposed to / to be expected to / to be to I shall / should / ought to swim. = I am supposed to swim. / I am expected to swim. / I am to swim.
Should and Shouldn't - Use
________________________________________
• We use should and shouldn't to give advice or to talk about what we think is right or wrong.
• You should means something like I think it is a good idea for you to do it.
• You shouldn't means something like I think it is a bad idea for you to do it.
• Should is used to express the opinion of a speaker and often follows I think or I don't think.
Examples
You look tired. I think you should take a few days off.
Alice works very long hours. She should to talk to her boss.
- I have an English test tomorrow.
- I shouldn't worry if I were you. You have worked really hard.
- I never have enough money.
- I don't think you should go out so much.
Should - Quick Grammar Note
To give advice to someone you can also say:
• I should do it if I were you.
• I shouldn't be so rude, if I were you.
When you regret not doing something in the past, you can say:
• I shouldn't have spoken to him like that.
• I should have apologized earlier.
Should or Shouldn't – Practice
Exercise. Chose should or shouldn't.
1. You be so selfish.
2. I don't think you smoke so much.
3. You exercise more.
4. I think you try to speak to her.
5. You are overweight. You go on a diet.
6. Where we park our car?
7. You never speak to your mother like this.
8. The kids spend so much time in front of the TV.
9. I tell her the truth or should I say nothing?
10. I think we reserve our holiday in advance.
Tip! We do not use shouldn't where there isn't any obligation at all.
Instead we use don't have to or don't need to.
Have To and Don't Have To – Uses
• We use ‘have to’ to talk about strong obligation that comes from somewhere else, for example from you boss, you parents, a rule at school or work.
Examples:
I have to be home by ten. (My parents told me so.)
I must be home by ten. I have a very difficult day tomorrow. (It is my own decision.)
I have to get up early, because I start work at 8. (It is a rule.)
I should get up early. (Now I stay in bed until lunchtime.)
• Don't have to means that there isn't any obligation at all,
there is no need to do it.
Don't have to is different from shouldn't and mustn't.
Examples:
I don't have to get up early at weekend.
(I can stay in bed as long as I want.)
You mustn't tell lies. (It is very bad to tell lies.)
You don't have to go with me.
(You can go with me if you want to.)
You shouldn't smoke. (It is bad for your health.)
• In spoken British English you can also use have got to and haven't got to.
Examples:
Pamela is a waitress. She's got to work at weekends.
Have I got to do it right now?
I haven't got to take my sister to school, my parents do it.
Tip! We do not use have to when we talk about what is a good idea to do, but we don't do it yet. Instead, we use should.
Have To and Don't Have To - Practice
________________________________________
Exercise. Chose have to / has to or don't have to / doesn't have to.
1. Every man do military service in my country. It's obligatory.
2. When do we pay for the next term?
3. Policemen wear a uniform.
4. A pilot train for many years.
5. Does Susan work long hours?
6. I get up early on Sundays. I can stay in bed.
7. You have a visa to come to Ukraine.
8. You to do it if you don't want to.
9. My daughter to cook, because I cook for the whole family.
10. We pay. It's free.
POSSIBILITY and PROBABILITY- the chance of any stated thing actually happening.
'Can' falls out straight away, because this is used where something is either possible or impossible, nothing in between.
This is why; it is also used when giving permission:
"You are allowed to use the library only up to 17:30 on weekdays. After that, it is only for senior students.” (Stating a rule);
"You can use the library during the day, but you can't use it in the evening." (Statement using possibility, less formal);
-"May I use the library this evening? I have some special research to do." (Requesting permission)
- "Yes, you can, but I'll have to give you a note for the librarian." (Giving permission)
Note that 'may' is used when requesting permission. It can also be used when giving permission, but this sounds more formal than 'can'.
People also say 'Can I' when requesting permission, but a sarcastic response would be to say:
"I'm sure you can (i.e., I'm sure you are quite capable of it) but you'll have to ask permission first."
One other use of 'can' is to express a possibility so small that it should really be ignored. For instance:
-"I'm worried about this computer crashing in the middle of something important."
-"That can still happen, but with the new software it is very rare, so you really shouldn't worry about it."
This leaves the other three: Could/May/Might.
These are used for probability - in other words, where something is possible, but you need to know how likely it is to happen (the 'in between' area that I mentioned above).
When used positively, they express levels of probability, from COULD (lowest), through MIGHT, to MAY (most). For a very strong probability you can also use additions, such as 'may well', 'might very well', or 'may very likely'.
Normally, though, examples would be as here:
"The sky looks quite dull, it could rain later".
"There are quite a lot of clouds. It might rain later."
"Those clouds look very dark. It may rain soon."
In negative - when you are expressing improbability or the chance of something not happening - MAY is not generally used. ('May not' is refusal of permission, see above).
Order of strength is reversed, so now COULD (NOT) is the strongest, and you can make additions such as 'couldn't possibly', 'might never'.
For example:
"I know nobody trusts Steve, but he might not have stolen that money."
"Dave is a very honest person. He couldn't be a thief."
Non-Continuous Verbs
By Kenneth Beare, About.com
See More About:
• Present continuous
• Present simple
• English tenses
Many verbs are used in continuous tenses. Here are some examples:
Present continuous - I'm working at the moment.
Past continuous - Jack was cooking dinner when I arrived.
Future continuous - I will be playing tennis this time tomorrow.
Present perfect continuous - She's been working her for three years.
Generally, continuous (or progressive) tenses are used to describe what is happening at a particular moment in time. The focus when using continuous tenses is always on an action in progress. However, there are some important exceptions to using continuous tenses. Most importantly, there are a number of common non-continuous verbs that are never or rarely used with continuous forms. These verbs fall into a few categories:
Mental and Emotional States
believe
dislike
doubt
imagine
know
like
love
hate
prefer
realize
recognize
remember
suppose
understand
want
wish
Examples
She dislikes that boy. NOT She is disliking that boy.
Jack prefers going out for dinner tonight. NOT Jack is preferring going out for dinner tonight.
I recognize you! NOT I'm recognizing you!
Sense
appear
hear
see
seem
smell
sound
taste
Examples
I saw him when the train arrived. NOT I was seeing him when the train arrived.
It tastes strange. NOT It is tasting strange.
Did you hear that? NOT Were you hearing that?
Communication
agree
astonish
deny
disagree
impress
mean
please
promise
satisfy
surprise
Examples
You astonish me! NOT You are astonishing me!
I'm afraid I disagree with you. NOT I'm afraid I am disagreeing with you.
I meant to tell him yesterday afternoon. NOT I was meaning to tell him yesterday afternoon.
Other States
be
belong
concern
consist
contain
cost
depend
deserve
fit
include
involve
lack
matter
need
owe
own
possess
Examples
It depends on how much it costs. NOT It is depending on how much it is costing.
She said it involved a lot of work. NOT She said it was involving a lot of work.
It doesn't matter. NOT It isn't mattering.
There are also a number of verbs that don't take the continuous forms in one meaning but DO take the continuous forms in other meanings. Here are some of the most important:
Non-Continuous Meanings
feel = 'have an opinion' - He feels he should get a second chance.
see = 'understand' - I see what you mean.
think = 'have an opinion' - I think we should leave immediately.
appear = 'look like' - That appears to be stale.
look = 'seem' - It looks impossible!
taste = 'have a taste' - That tastes yummy!
Continuous Meanings
feel = 'feel physically' - I'm feeling awful this afternoon.
see = 'visit' - She's seeing a doctor this morning.
think = 'use the brain' - He's thinking hard about the problem.
appear = 'be on stage / perform' - Jack Daniels is performing at the Paramount tonight.
look = 'stare at' - I'm looking at that strange man.
taste = 'use the mouth' - The cook is tasting the sauce!
English Tenses Timeline Chart
This timeline tenses chart provides a handy reference sheet to English tenses and their relationship to one another and the past, present and future. Conjugated verbs are highlighted in bold. Tenses which are rarely used in everyday conversation are marked by an asterik (*).
TIMELINE
SIMPLE ACTIVE SIMPLE PASSIVE PROGRESSIVE / CONTINUOUS ACTIVE PROGRESSIVE / CONTINUOUS PASSIVE
PAST TIME
^
|
|
|
|
She had already eaten when I arrived. The painting had been sold twice before it was destroyed.
^
|
PAST PERFECT
|
| I had been waiting for four hours when he finally arrived. The house had been being painted for over a month before they began to decorate the interior. *
I bought a new car last week. The book was written in 1876 by Frank Smith.
^
|
PAST
|
| I was watching TV when she arrived. The problem was being solved when I arrived late for class.
She has lived in California for many years. The company has been managed by Fred Jones for the last two years.
^
|
PRESENT PERFECT
|
| She has been working at Johnson's for six months. The students have been being taught for the last four hours. *
He works five days a week. Those shoes are made in Italy.
^
|
PRESENT
|
| I am working at the moment. The work is being done by Jim.
|
|
PRESENT MOMENT
|
|
|
FUTURE INTENTION
|
|
V They are going to fly to New York tomorrow. The reports are going to be completed by the marketing department.
The sun will shine tomorrow. The food will be brought later.
|
FUTURE SIMPLE
|
|
V She will be teaching tomorrow at six o'clock. The rolls will be being baked at two. *
I will have completed the course by the end of next week. The project will have been finished by tomorrow afternoon.
|
FUTURE PERFECT
|
|
V She will have been working here for two years by the end of next month. The house will have been being built for six months by the time they finish. *
FUTURE TIME
|
|
|
|
V
Non-Continuous Verbs
Many verbs are used in continuous tenses. Here are some examples:
Present continuous - I'm working at the moment.
Past continuous - Jack was cooking dinner when I arrived.
Future continuous - I will be playing tennis this time tomorrow.
Present perfect continuous - She's been working her for three years.
Generally, continuous (or progressive) tenses are used to describe what is happening at a particular moment in time. The focus when using continuous tenses is always on an action in progress. However, there are some important exceptions to using continuous tenses. Most importantly, there are a number of common non-continuous verbs that are never or rarely used with continuous forms. These verbs fall into a few categories:
Mental and Emotional States
believe
dislike
doubt
imagine
know
like
love
hate
prefer
realize
recognize
remember
suppose
understand
want
wish
Examples
She dislikes that boy. NOT She is disliking that boy.
Jack prefers going out for dinner tonight. NOT Jack is preferring going out for dinner tonight.
I recognize you! NOT I'm recognizing you!
Sense
appear
hear
see
seem
smell
sound
taste
Examples
I saw him when the train arrived. NOT I was seeing him when the train arrived.
It tastes strange. NOT It is tasting strange.
Did you hear that? NOT Were you hearing that?
Communication
agree
astonish
deny
disagree
impress
mean
please
promise
satisfy
surprise
Examples
You astonish me! NOT You are astonishing me!
I'm afraid I disagree with you. NOT I'm afraid I am disagreeing with you.
I meant to tell him yesterday afternoon. NOT I was meaning to tell him yesterday afternoon.
Other States
be
belong
concern
consist
contain
cost
depend
deserve
fit
include
involve
lack
matter
need
owe
own
possess
Examples
It depends on how much it costs. NOT It is depending on how much it is costing.
She said it involved a lot of work. NOT She said it was involving a lot of work.
It doesn't matter. NOT It isn't mattering.
There are also a number of verbs that don't take the continuous forms in one meaning but DO take the continuous forms in other meanings. Here are some of the most important:
Verbs in their Non-Continuous Form
feel = 'have an opinion' - He feels he should get a second chance.
see = 'understand' - I see what you mean.
think = 'have an opinion' - I think we should leave immediately.
appear = 'look like' - That appears to be stale.
look = 'seem' - It looks impossible!
taste = 'have a taste' - That tastes yummy!
Verbs in their Continuous Form
feel = 'feel physically' - I'm feeling awful this afternoon.
see = 'visit' - She's seeing a doctor this morning.
think = 'use the brain' - He's thinking hard about the problem.
appear = 'be on stage / perform' - Jack Daniels is performing at the Paramount tonight.
look = 'stare at' - I'm looking at that strange man.
taste = 'use the mouth' - The cook is tasting the sauce!
Non-Continuous Verbs
Many verbs are used in continuous tenses. Here are some examples:
Present continuous - I'm working at the moment.
Past continuous - Jack was cooking dinner when I arrived.
Future continuous - I will be playing tennis this time tomorrow.
Present perfect continuous - She's been working her for three years.
Generally, continuous (or progressive) tenses are used to describe what is happening at a particular moment in time. The focus when using continuous tenses is always on an action in progress. However, there are some important exceptions to using continuous tenses. Most importantly, there are a number of common non-continuous verbs that are never or rarely used with continuous forms. These verbs fall into a few categories:
Mental and Emotional States
believe
dislike
doubt
imagine
know
like
love
hate
prefer
realize
recognize
remember
suppose
understand
want
wish
Examples
She dislikes that boy. NOT She is disliking that boy.
Jack prefers going out for dinner tonight. NOT Jack is preferring going out for dinner tonight.
I recognize you! NOT I'm recognizing you!
Sense
appear
hear
see
seem
smell
sound
taste
Examples
I saw him when the train arrived. NOT I was seeing him when the train arrived.
It tastes strange. NOT It is tasting strange.
Did you hear that? NOT Were you hearing that?
Communication
agree
astonish
deny
disagree
impress
mean
please
promise
satisfy
surprise
Examples
You astonish me! NOT You are astonishing me!
I'm afraid I disagree with you. NOT I'm afraid I am disagreeing with you.
I meant to tell him yesterday afternoon. NOT I was meaning to tell him yesterday afternoon.
Other States
be
belong
concern
consist
contain
cost
depend
deserve
fit
include
involve
lack
matter
need
owe
own
possess
Examples
It depends on how much it costs. NOT It is depending on how much it is costing.
She said it involved a lot of work. NOT She said it was involving a lot of work.
It doesn't matter. NOT It isn't mattering.
There are also a number of verbs that don't take the continuous forms in one meaning but DO take the continuous forms in other meanings. Here are some of the most important:
Verbs in their Non-Continuous Form
feel = 'have an opinion' - He feels he should get a second chance.
see = 'understand' - I see what you mean.
think = 'have an opinion' - I think we should leave immediately.
appear = 'look like' - That appears to be stale.
look = 'seem' - It looks impossible!
taste = 'have a taste' - That tastes yummy!
Verbs in their Continuous Form
feel = 'feel physically' - I'm feeling awful this afternoon.
see = 'visit' - She's seeing a doctor this morning.
think = 'use the brain' - He's thinking hard about the problem.
appear = 'be on stage / perform' - Jack Daniels is performing at the Paramount tonight.
look = 'stare at' - I'm looking at that strange man.
taste = 'use the mouth' - The cook is tasting the sauce!
Polite speech –Ways of saying ‘No’
When native speakers of English give a negative answer they do not usually just say "no". They prefer to make the response more polite by adding words or using different phrases to show they are saying no.
Match the questions on the left with an appropriate response on the right:
1.
Do you mind if I smoke? a. No, thank you.
2.
Do you like the new plan? b. It might not be very convenient for the others.
3.
Would you like to come to dinner? c. I'd rather you didn't.
4.
How about postponing the meeting? d. I'd love to, but I'm afraid I'm busy.
5.
Would you like some coffee? e. Well, not really I'm afraid.
Polite speech
Requests
At work we often have to ask people to do things for us. We may need their help urgently or it may be a minor matter. The language we use to make such requests will be different, depending on the importance of the thing requested. We are more formal and less definite if we are asking another person to make big efforts for us.
Our language also, of course, reflects the relationship we have with another person. If we are asking a stranger or our boss to do something for us, we choose language which is much more formal and less definite (weaker) than when speaking to a colleague in our office or a friend.
Exercise 1
Look at the situations below. In each case you need to ask someone to do something for you. What do you say?
The first one is already done for you.
Press the "Suggestion" button to see one possible answer. There are, of course, several possibilities for each situation.
1. You've lost your calculator. Ask a colleague to lend you his.
Could you lend me your calculator, please? I've lost mine.
2. You want your secretary to type a letter for you.
3. You want somebody in your department to finish writing a report for you by Friday.
4. You can't meet Pat Hoskins tomorrow because you've suddenly got to go to Paris on business. Ask a colleague to meet Pat Hoskins instead.
5. You want your friend to get you a coffee.
6. You can't attend the meeting tomorrow because you have a doctor's appointment. Ask your boss to postpone the meeting.
Exercise 2
Look at the response phrases below. Is it possible to use all of them with the requests above?
Yeah, OK. No, not at all. Certainly. Yes, of course. Yes, all right.
Prepositions
Is it any wonder that prepositions create such troubles for students for whom English is a second language? We say we are at the hospital to visit a friend who is in the hospital. We lie in bed but on the couch. We watch a film at the theater but on television. For native speakers, these little words present little difficulty, but try to learn another language, any other language, and you will quickly discover that prepositions are troublesome wherever you live and learn. This page contains some interesting (sometimes troublesome) prepositions with brief usage notes. To address all the potential difficulties with prepositions in idiomatic usage would require volumes, and the only way English language learners can begin to master the intricacies of preposition usage is through practice and paying close attention to speech and the written word. Keeping a good dictionary close at hand (to hand?) is an important first step.
Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in
We use at to designate specific times.
The train is due at 12:15 p.m.
We use on to designate days and dates.
My brother is coming on Monday.
We're having a party on the Fourth of July.
We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.
She likes to jog in the morning.
It's too cold in winter to run outside.
He started the job in 1971.
He's going to quit in August.
Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in
We use at for specific addresses.
Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.
We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.
Her house is on Boretz Road.
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents).
She lives in Durham.
Durham is in Windham County.
Windham County is in Connecticut.
Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on
and No Preposition
IN
(the) bed*
the bedroom
the car
(the) class*
the library*
school* AT
class*
home
the library*
the office
school*
work ON
the bed*
the ceiling
the floor
the horse
the plane
the train NO PREPOSITION
downstairs
downtown
inside
outside
upstairs
uptown
* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.
Prepositions of Movement: to
and No Preposition
We use to in order to express movement toward a place.
They were driving to work together.
She's going to the dentist's office this morning.
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These are simply variant spellings of the same word; use whichever sounds better to you.
We're moving toward the light.
This is a big step towards the project's completion.
With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition.
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home.
They both went outside.
Prepositions of Time: for and since
We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years).
He held his breath for seven minutes.
She's lived there for seven years.
The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.
We use since with a specific date or time.
He's worked here since 1970.
She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty.
Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.
Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words that they have practically become one word. (In fact, in other languages, such as German, they would have become one word.) This occurs in three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs.
NOUNS and PREPOSITIONS
approval of
awareness of
belief in
concern for
confusion about
desire for fondness for
grasp of
hatred of
hope for
interest in
love of need for
participation in
reason for
respect for
success in
understanding of
ADJECTIVES and PREPOSITIONS
afraid of
angry at
aware of
capable of
careless about
familiar with fond of
happy about
interested in
jealous of
made of
married to proud of
similar to
sorry for
sure of
tired of
worried about
VERBS and PREPOSITIONS
apologize for
ask about
ask for
belong to
bring up
care for
find out give up
grow up
look for
look forward to
look up
make up
pay for prepare for
study for
talk about
think about
trust in
work for
worry about
ADJECTIVES and PREPOSITIONS
afraid of
angry at
aware of
capable of
careless about
familiar with fond of
happy about
interested in
jealous of
made of
married to proud of
similar to
sorry for
sure of
tired of
worried about
VERBS and PREPOSITIONS
apologize for
ask about
ask for
belong to
bring up
care for
find out give up
grow up
look for
look forward to
look up
make up
pay for prepare for
study for
talk about
think about
trust in
work for
worry about
A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined to the verb is then called a particle. Please refer to the brief section we have prepared on phrasal verbs for an explanation.
Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions
• agree to a proposal, with a person, on a price, in principle
• argue about a matter, with a person, for or against a proposition
• compare to to show likenesses, with to show differences (sometimes similarities)
• correspond to a thing, with a person
• differ from an unlike thing, with a person
• live at an address, in a house or city, on a street, with other people
Unnecessary Prepositions
In everyday speech, we fall into some bad habits, using prepositions where they are not necessary. It would be a good idea to eliminate these words altogether, but we must be especially careful not to use them in formal, academic prose.
• She met up with the new coach in the hallway.
• The book fell off of the desk.
• He threw the book out of the window.
• She wouldn't let the cat inside of the house. [or use "in"]
• Where did they go to?
• Put the lamp in back of the couch. [use "behind" instead]
• Where is your college at?
Prepositions-Practice
Instructions: For each question, choose the single best answer.
1. My best friend lives ______ Hill Road.
a. in
b. on
c. at
2. I'll be ready to leave ____ about twenty minutes.
a. in
b. on
c. at
3. Since he met his new girlfriend, Juan never seems to be ______ home.
a. on
b. in
c. at
4. The child responded to his mother's demands ______ throwing a tantrum.
a. with
b. by
c. from
5. I think she spent the entire afternoon ______ the phone.
a. on
b. in
c. at
6. I will wait ______ 6:30, but then I'm going home.
a. from
b. at
c. until
. The police caught the thief _____ the corner of Cascade and Plum Streets.
a. in
b. at
c. from
8. My fingers were injured so my sister had to write the note _____ me.
a. for
b. with
c. to
9. I am not interested _____ buying a new car now.
a. to
b. for
c. in
10. What are the main ingredients ______ this casserole?
a. about
b. to
c. of
11. My best friend, John, is named ______ his great-grandfather.
a. after
b. to
c. about
12. Grandpa stayed up ______ two in the morning.
a. since
b. for
c. until
13. My parents have been married ______ forty-nine years.
a. since
b. for
c. until
14. He usually travels to Philadelphia _______ train.
a. by
b. at
c. with
15. You frequently see this kind of violence ____ television.
a. with
b. in
c. on
16. I told Mom we'd be home ______ an hour or so.
a. to
b. in
c. at
17. I was visiting my best friend _____ the hospital.
a. of
b. at
c. in
18. The professor _______ South Africa amazed the American students with her stories.
a. from
b. of
c. in
19. I'll see you ____ home when I get there.
a. in
b. by
c. at
20. It's been snowing ________ Christmas morning.
a. since
b. for
c. until
Summary of Punctuation Marks
Mark Name Example(s)
. full stop I love Indian food.
, comma I speak French, Russian and English.
'As You Like It', as many know, is a play written by Shakespeare English.
; semi-colon I hate swimming; my girlfriend loves it.
Neither of us spoke; we merely waited in silence to see what would happen.
: colon You will need the following: some paper; a pencil; a pen, preferably blue or black; and your course book.
Joanna became a director in just four months: her father was the chief shareholder.
- hyphen He had something of a couldn't-care-less attitude to life.
--
- dash In each country -- France, Switzerland and Australia -- we were able to communicate in English.
The following day we had better luck - but that is another story.
? question mark Is there any railway station nearby?
! exclamation mark "Help!" he cried. "I can't swim!"
/ slash Please press your browser's Refresh/Reload button.
" quotation marks "I think I'm falling in love with you," she said.
' apostrophe This is Simon's car.
( ) brackets Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, limes) are rich in vitamin C.
[ ] (square) brackets The newspaper reported that the hostages [most of them French] had been released.
... ellipsis One satisfied customer wrote: "This is the best school ... in which I have ever studied" or in more colloquial speech "This is the best school...that I have ever studied at."
Punctuation
Capital Letters
Capital letters are used with:
• the first word in a sentence or direct quotation
o They like hamburgers.
• names of persons and the word "I"
o Jerry, Jill and I went shopping.
• names of particular places
o We like to go to the Abbey in Ely Center.
• names of the days of the week, months, and holidays
o Christmas falls on December 25 every year.
• names of commercial products
o Our copy machine is made by Xerox.
• names of organizations such as religious and political groups, associations, companies, unions and clubs
o Many people are members of the National Association of the Deaf.
• words in titles of books, magazines, newspapers, articles, stories, poems, films, television shows, songs, papers that you write
o Gallaudet Today is an informative magazine.
However, a word like a, an, the, but, for, and is not capitalized unless it is the first word of the title or the first word after a colon.
• Perspectives on Deafness: A Deaf American Monograph was edited by Mervin D. Garretson.
• On the Green is an in-house Gallaudet publication for faculty and staff.
________________________________________
Apostrophe
The two main uses of the apostrophe are:
• to show the omission of one or more letters in a contraction
do + not = don't
is + not = isn't
that + is = that's
• to show ownership or possession
Ellen's books
Dorothy's pen
Howard's hands
________________________________________
Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks when you want to show the exact words of a speaker or writer. Place all commas and periods inside of the quotation marks.
Incorrect: "The only dumb question", the instructor said, "is the one you don't ask".
Correct: "The only dumb question," the instructor said, "is the one you don't ask."
Use quotation marks when you want to quote or show the titles of short stories, novellas, articles, chapter titles in books, poems, television shows, songs, and papers that you write.
Incorrect: I read the poem The Tyger, the other day.
Correct: I read the poem "The Tyger," the other day.
________________________________________
Italics/Underline
Use italics or underline to show the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, plays, art masterpieces, and long musical compositions.
Incorrect: The novel, "Gone with the Wind," was extraordinary.
Correct: The novel, Gone with the Wind, was extraordinary.
The novel, Gone with the Wind, was extraordinary.
________________________________________
Commas
Commas often show a pause in a sentence. There are nine main uses of the comma:
• to separate items in a series
o I like swimming, summer, and vacations.
• to set off introductory material
o First, let me explain our cut policy.
• on both sides of words that interrupt the flow of thought in a sentence
o The Tutorial Center, a division of the School of Undergraduate Studies, is a place where students can get one-on-one help.
• between two complete thoughts connected by and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet
o I love to watch basketball, but I do not play it.
• to set off a direct quotation from the rest of a sentence
o According to I. King Jordan, "Deaf people can do anything -- except hear."
• in dates
o April 6, 1976
• in addresses
o My address is P.O. Box 250, Gallaudet University, Washington, D.C., 20002.
• in the openings and closings of letters
o Dear Judith, . . . Sincerely yours, Ellen
Reported Speech
Statements
1) If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in Reported speech.
Example: Susan: "I work in an office." Susan says that she works in an office.
________________________________________
2) If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in Reported speech. (see: Note)
Example: Susan: "I work in an office." Susan said that she worked in an office.
Backshift of tenses
from to
Simple Present Simple Past
Simple Past Past Perfect
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
will would
Progressive forms
am/are/is was/were
was/were had been
has been
had been
Backshift of tenses
from To
Peter: "I work in the garden." Peter said that he worked in the garden.
Peter: "I worked in the garden." Peter said that he had worked in the garden.
Peter: "I have worked in the garden."
Peter: "I had worked in the garden."
Peter: "I will work in the garden." Peter said that he would work in the garden.
Peter: "I can work in the garden." Peter said that he could work in the garden.
Peter: "I may work in the garden." Peter said that he might work in the garden.
Peter: "I would work in the garden."
(could, might, should, ought to) Peter said that he would work in the garden.
(could, might, should, ought to)
Progressive forms
Peter: "I'm working in the garden." Peter said that he was working in the garden.
Peter: "I was working in the garden." Peter said that he had been working in the garden.
Peter: "I have been working in the garden."
Peter: "I had been working in the garden."
If the sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it as well.
Peter: "I worked in the garden yesterday."
Peter said that he had worked in the garden the day before.
Shifting of expressions of time
this (evening) that (evening)
today/this day that day
these (days) those (days)
now then
(a week) ago (a week) before
last weekend the weekend before / the previous weekend
here there
next (week) the following (week)
tomorrow the next/following day
Note:
In some cases the backshift of tenses is not necessary, e.g. when statements are still true.
John: "My brother is at Cambridge University."
John said that his brother was at Cambridge university./John said that his brother is at Cambridge University.
Or
Sandy: "The sun rises in the East."
Sandy said that the sun rose in the East./ Sandy said that the sun rises in the East.
Run-ons - Comma Splices - Fused Sentences
Run-ons, comma splices, and fused sentences are all names given to compound sentences that are not punctuated correctly. The best way to avoid such errors is to punctuate compound sentences correctly by using one or the other of these rules.
1. Join the two independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet), and use a comma before the connecting word.
_________________________, and _________________________.
He enjoys walking through the country, and he often goes backpacking on his vacations.
2. When you do not have a connecting word (or when you use a connecting word other than and, but, for, or nor, so, or yet between the two independent clauses) use a semicolon (;).
__________________________;_____________________________.
He often watched TV when there were only reruns; she preferred to read instead.
or
__________________________; however,____________________.
He often watched TV when there were only reruns; however, she preferred to read instead.
So, run-ons and fused sentences are terms describing two independent clauses which are joined together with no connecting word or punctuation to separate the clauses.
Incorrect: They weren't dangerous criminals they were detectives in disguise.
Correct: They weren't dangerous criminals; they were detectives in disguise.
Incorrect: I didn't know which job I wanted I was too confused to decide.
Correct: I didn't know which job I wanted, and I was too confused to decide.
Subject Verb Agreement
Making Subjects and Verbs Agree
1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.
2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.
3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.
4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don't is a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to this rule appears in the case of the first person and second person pronouns I and you. With these pronouns, the contraction don't should be used.
5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.
Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.
8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts to these things.)
9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.
10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular and take a singular verb, such as: group, team, committee, class, and family.
In very few cases, the plural verb is used if the individuals in the group are thought of and specifically referred to.
11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.
Date]
[Addressee]
Dear [Name]:
As I have……. [Briefly describe situation requiring
this request].
Hence, I request you a grant me a
5 day leave of absence (from – to -).
I will be back to work____
on [date]. If you need any additional information, please
contact me at [#]….
Sincerely,
…………..
_________________
Letter of Appreciation to Employee
Dear
Your enthusiasm and your ability to motivate your employees
have resulted in a significant increase in productivity and
profitability.
If we had an award to give, you would be the prime candidate.
Please accept my sincerest appreciation for the fine job you
are doing in our sales department.
Employment Letter
Date: _
To: _ (Employee)
Dear . . .
We are pleased to confirm your being employed by our firm
in the capacity of _. You will report directly to _,
commencing with your start of employment on _, 19_.
Your salary shall be $_ per _. You will also be covered
by the standard group benefit plans and fringe benefits
explained to you. For the first year vacation time shall be
pro-rated, so you will be entitled to _ days’ vacation for this
year.
If you agree, this letter sets for our understanding,
please sign the enclosed copy and return it for our files.
Looking forward to your joining the company
………..
………..
Congratulations on Promotion
Dear . . . .
Congratulations on your recent promotion to (position)
I know how hard you have worked to earn the recognition
you presently enjoy at (name of firm) , and I feel that
the company has displayed its wisdom in making its choice.
Please accept my best wishes for your success in your
new position.
Running Effective Meetings
Meetings are wonderful tools for generating ideas, expanding on thoughts and managing group activity. But this face-to-face contact with team members and colleagues can easily fail without adequate preparation and leadership.
The Importance of Preparation
To ensure everyone involved has the opportunity to provide their input, start your meeting off on the right foot by designating a meeting time that allows all participants the time needed to adequately prepare.
Once a meeting time and place have been chosen, make yourself available for questions that may arise as participants prepare for the meeting. If you are the meeting leader, make a meeting agenda, complete with detailed notes.
In these notes, outline the goal and proposed structure of the meeting, and share this with the participants. This will allow all involved to prepare and to come to the meeting ready to work together to meet the goal(s) at hand.
The success of the meeting depends largely on the skills displayed by the meeting leader. To ensure the meeting is successful, the leader should:
• Issue an agenda
• Start the discussion and encourage active participation
• Work to keep the meeting at a comfortable pace – not moving too fast or too slow
• Summarize the discussion and the recommendations at the end of each logical section
• Ensure all participants receive minutes promptly
While these tips will help ensure your meeting is productive and well-received, there are other important areas that need to be touched on to make sure your meeting and negotiation skills are fine-tuned.
Managing a Meeting
Choosing the right participants is key to the success of any meeting. Make sure all participants can contribute and choose good decision-makers and problem-solvers. Try to keep the number of participants to a maximum of 12, preferably fewer. Make sure the people with the necessary information for the items listed in the meeting agenda are the ones that are invited.
Tip:
Stop for a minute to consider the hourly cost to your organization of the people attending your meeting. You'll realize that calling a meeting is expensive, so it's important to ensure that every person attending and every minute of your meeting adds value. Hence, don't invite people who won't participate but will simply report to their boss or team (sending a copy of the minutes will be a more effective way of achieving this). Equally, don't use meetings to tell people things that could be communicated just as effectively by email or memo.
If you are the leader, work diligently to ensure everyone’s thoughts and ideas are heard by guiding the meeting so that there is a free flow of debate with no individual dominating and no extensive discussions between two people. As time dwindles for each item on the distributed agenda, you may find it useful to stop the discussion, then quickly summarize the debate on that agenda item and move on the next item on the agenda.
When an agenda item is resolved or action is agreed upon, make it clear who in the meeting will be responsible for this. In an effort to bypass confusion and misunderstandings, summarize the action to be taken and include this in the meeting’s minutes.
Time Keeping
Meetings are notorious for eating up people's time. Here are some ways of ensuring that time is not wasted in meetings:
• Start on time.
• Don't recap what you've covered if someone comes in late: doing so sends the message that it is OK to be late for meetings, and it wastes everyone else's valuable time.
• State a finish time for the meeting and don't over-run.
• To help stick to the stated finish time, arrange your agenda in order of importance so that if you have to omit or rush items at the end to make the finish time, you don't omit or skimp on important items.
• Finish the meeting before the stated finish time if you have achieved everything you need to.
Issuing Minutes
Minutes record the decisions of the meeting and the actions agreed. They provide a record of the meeting and, importantly, they provide a review document for use at the next meeting so that progress can be measured – this makes them a useful disciplining technique as individuals' performance and non-performance of agreed actions is given high visibility.
The style of the minutes issued depends on the circumstances – in situations of critical importance and where the record is important, and then you may need to take detailed minutes. Where this is not the case, then minutes can be simple lists of decisions made and of actions to be taken (with the responsible person identified). Generally, they should be as short as possible as long as all key information is shown – this makes them quick and easy to prepare and digest.
It is always impressive if the leader of a meeting issues minutes within 24 hours of the end of the meeting – it's even better if they are issued on the same day.
Tenses, Voice and Modal Verbs
The English Tenses: Chart
Tense Example
Past simple (or indefinite) She took him home.
Past continuous (or progressive) He was driving dangerously.
Past perfect simple I had known him for many years. Then one day…
Past perfect continuous He had been watching her for several months.
Present simple Her husband does everything for her.
Present Continuous He is watching the match at the moment.
Present perfect simple I have seen this movie before.
Present perfect continuous They have been seeing each other for some time now.
Future simple I will give her another chance.
Future continuous They will be moving quite soon.
Future perfect simple I will have completed the report by Monday.
Future perfect continuous He will have been working here for thirty years come the end of next month.
The Active and Passive Voices
The term 'voice' describes how a language expresses the relationships between verbs and the nouns or noun phrases, which are associated with them. Again, we will contrast two sentences of similar meaning in order to help us to understand this.
1. The police arrested David for being drunk and disorderly.
2. David was arrested for being drunk and disorderly.
Sentence (1) above is an example of the active voice while sentence (2) is in the passive voice. When we use the passive, we do not usually state the agent. This is because it is obvious, unknown or unnecessary.
1. I was arrested last night. (obvious)
2. My car was stolen last night. (unknown)
3. This tower was built in 1415. (unnecessary)
If we really wish to mention the agent in a passive sentence, we can do so by adding a phrase beginning with 'by'.
'This tower was built in 1415, by Sir Henry Rumboldt.'
So why might we choose to use the passive in sentences like this? The fact that Sir Henry built the tower is not obvious, unnecessary and is certainly known! Also, computer grammar checkers are always highlighting them as something undesirable.
1. Sir Henry Rumboldt built this tower in 1415.
2. This tower was built in 1415, by Sir Henry Rumboldt.
Which sentence is more likely to be found in a book about Sir Henry? Which is more likely in a book about the tower? Answers: (1) and (2) respectively. When the focus is on Sir Henry the active voice is more usual, and when it is on the tower, the passive is more natural.
Modal Verbs
Ability: can, could
I can play the piano.
I could play the piano when I was younger
Possibility and probability: may, might, could (but NOT can), should, be going to, can’t, supposed to.
Paul may/might/could have got lost. I’m not sure he had a map.
Paul should be on his way now.
I think it is going to rain.
You can’t have seen Grandma on the bus- she died years ago.
According to his directions, this is supposed to be the place where children are forced to work as laborers.
Imaginary and conditional situations: would, might, could, can, should, may should. Consider the difference in meaning between the following:
If I had the money, I would buy it.
If I had the money, I could buy it.
If you have time, you should do it.
If you have time, you may/can do it.
If we have time, we might do it
Deduction, expectation and conclusion: must, might, should, could, can’t (but NOT mustn’t), supposed to.
He must be Russian, he’s drunk by midday on a Saturday afternoon.
He might/could be Russian; he’s paying for her meal.
He can’t be Russian; he’s smiling on the metro.
We’re supposed to leave now. What’s the delay?
We should be leaving now. What’s the delay?
Willingness, spontaneous decisions and promises: will, have to, would
The car won’t start.
I really have to start going to the gym.
I will do it tomorrow – you have my word.
I would do it but I don’t have enough grease.
Reporting: can, could, should, might, may, must, and would.
He said he could do it.
He said he should do it.
He said he might do it.
He said he may do it.
He said he must do it.
He said he would do it.
Making requests: may, could, might, can, should (formal 1st conditional).
May I have a glass of water?
Could I have a glass of water?
Might I have a glass of water?
Should I have a glass of water, would it inconvenience you?
Making suggestions: may, might, could, can.
You may want to rephrase that.
You might want to rephrase that.
You could rephrase that.
You can rephrase that.
Past habits: used to, would.
I used to play hockey at school. My grandfather would play with us in the garden for hours on end.
Obligation: must, have to, should, ought to, had better, need (n’t), supposed to.
You must complete your project.
You have to complete your project.
You had better complete your project.
You should complete your project.
You ought to complete your project.
You are supposed to complete your project.
You need to complete your project.
You needn’t complete your project.
WRITING CONCISE
SENTENCES
Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that every word tell.
Whether it's a two-word quip or a 200-word bear, a sentence must be a lean, thinking machine. Here are some notes toward efficiency and conciseness in writing.
PRUNING THE REDUNDANT
Avoid saying the same thing twice.
• Many uneducated citizens who have never attended school continue to vote for better schools.
A phrase that repeats itself—like "true fact," "twelve noon," "I saw it with my own eyes”called a pleonasm.
Redundant phrases are bad habits just waiting to take control of your writing. Beware of the following.
Redundancy The Lean Version
12 midnight midnight
12 noon noon
3 am in the morning 3 am
absolutely spectacular/phenomenal spectacular/phenomenal
a person who is honest an honest person
a total of 14 birds 14 birds
biography of her life biography
circle around circle
close proximity proximity
completely unanimous unanimous
consensus of opinion consensus
cooperate together cooperate
each and every each
enclosed herewith enclosed
end result result
exactly the same the same
final completion completion
frank and honest exchange frank exchange or honest exchange
free gift Gift
he/she is a person who . . . he/she
important/basic essentials Essentials
in spite of the fact that Although
in the field of economics/law enforcement in economics/law enforcement
in the event that If
job functions job or functions
new innovations Innovations
one and the same the same
particular interest Interest
period of four days four days
personally, I think/feel I think/feel
personal opinion Opinion
puzzling in nature Puzzling
refer back Refer
repeat again Repeat
return again Return
revert back Revert
shorter/longer in length shorter/longer
small/large in size small/large
square/round/rectangular in shape square/round/rectangular
summarize briefly Summarize
surrounded on all sides Surrounded
surrounding circumstances Circumstances
the future to come the future
there is no doubt but that no doubt
usual/habitual custom Custom
we are in receipt of we have received
Phrases You Can Omit
Be on the lookout for important sounding phrases that add nothing to the meaning of a sentence. Such phrases quickly put a reader on guard that the writer is trading in puffery; worse, they put a reader to sleep.
all things considered All things considered, Connecticut's woodlands are in better shape now than ever before.
All things considered, Connecticut's woodlands are in better shape now than ever before.
as a matter of fact As a matter of fact, there are more woodlands in Connecticut now than there were in 1898.
as a matter of fact, There are more woodlands in Connecticut now than there were in 1898.
as far as I'm concerned As far as I'm concerned, there is no need for further protection of woodlands.
As far as I'm concerned, there Further protection of woodlands is not needed.
at the present time This is because there are fewer farmers at the present time.
This is because there are fewer farmers now.
because of the fact that Woodlands have grown in area because of the fact that farmers have abandoned their fields.
Woodlands have grown in area because farmers have abandoned their fields.
by means of Major forest areas are coming back by means of natural processes.
Major forest areas are coming back through natural processes. (or naturally)
by virtue of the fact that Our woodlands are coming back by virtue of the fact that our economy has shifted its emphasis.
Our woodlands are coming back by virtue of the fact that because our economy has shifted its emphasis.
due to the fact that Due to the fact that their habitats are being restored, forest creatures are also re-establishing their population bases.
Due to the fact that Because their habitats are being restored, forest creatures are also re-establishing their population bases.
exists The fear that exists among many people that we are losing our woodlands is uncalled for.
The fear that exists among many people that we are losing our woodlands is uncalled for.
for all intents and purposes The era in which we must aggressively defend our woodlands has, for all intents and purposes, passed.
The era in which we must aggressively defend our woodlands has, for all intents and purposes, passed.
for the most part For the most part, people's suspicions are based on a misunderstanding of the facts.
For the most part, pPeople's suspicions are based on a misunderstanding of the facts.
for the purpose of Many woodlands, in fact, have been purchased for the purpose of creating public parks.
Many woodlands, in fact, have been purchased for the purpose of creating as public parks.
have a tendency to This policy has a tendency to isolate some communities.
This policy has a tendency tends to isolate some communities.
in a manner of speaking The policy has, in a manner of speaking, begun to Balkanize the more rural parts of our state.
The policy has, in a manner of speaking, begun to Balkanize the more rural parts of our state.
in a very real sense In a very real sense, this policy works to the detriment of those it is supposed to help.
In a very real sense, this This policy works to the detriment of those it is supposed to help.
in my opinion In my opinion, this wasteful policy ought to be revoked.
In my opinion, thisThis wasteful policy ought to be revoked.
in the case of In the case of this particular policy, citizens of northeast Connecticut became very upset.
Citizens of northeast Connecticut became very upset about his policy.
in the final analysis In the final analysis, the state would have been better off without such a policy.
In the final analysis, the The state would have been better off without such a policy.
in the event that In the event that enough people protest, it will probably be revoked.
If enough people protest, it will probably be revoked.
in the nature of Something in the nature of a repeal may soon take place.
Something in the nature of like a repeal may soon take place.
in the process of Legislators are already in the process of reviewing the statutes.
Legislators are already in the process of reviewing the statutes.
it seems that It seems that they can't wait to get rid of this one.
It seems that they They can't wait to get rid of this one.
manner They have monitored the activities of conservationists in a cautious manner.
They have cautiously monitored the activities of conservationists.
the point I am trying to make The point I am trying to make is that sometimes public policy doesn't accomplish what it set out to achieve.
The point I am trying to make is that some Sometimes public policy doesn't accomplish what it set out to achieve.
type of Legislators need to be more careful of the type of policy they propose.
Legislators need to be more careful of the type of policy they propose.
what I mean to say is What I mean to say is that well intentioned lawmakers sometimes make fools of themselves.
What I mean to say is that well Well intentioned lawmakers sometimes make fools of themselves.
Quiz
Rewrite the following sentences in the text-areas provided:
1. At this point in time we can't ascertain the reason as to why the screen door was left open.
2. My sister, who is employed as a nutritionist at the University of Michigan, recommends the daily intake of mega doses of Vitamin C.
4. It is to be hoped that we discover a means to create an absolutely proper and fitting tribute to Professor Espinoza.
5. There is a desire on the part of many of us to maintain a spring recess for the purpose of getting away from the demands of our studies.
6.Joe was an honest and hard working man. Basically, he never gave much consideration to sitting idly about, doing nothing constructive. (Rewrite as one sentence.)
7. What is your basic understanding of predestination?
8. At what point in time will a downturn in the stock market have a really serious effect on the social life of people as a whole?
9. I would call your attention to the fact that our President, who was formerly the Governor of Arkansas, is basically a Southerner.
10. There are millions of fans who desperately want the Hartford Whalers to enter politics.
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